COHERENCE
PREVIEW
There
are at least two reasons why the ideas in a message should be
well organized. First, receivers tend to remember ideas that
are structured according to some familiar systematic plan. Second,
as a transmitter you will feel more confident when you have your
ideas structured in a manner that seems reasonable to you and
others. To get a systematic plan that seems reasonable to you
and others, we suggest that you prepare an outline. The suggestions
made here about patterns of organization and outlining are designed
to help you structure your verbal message.
By
the end of this unit, you should be able to
Describe
organization.
Describe
outlining.
PATTERNS
OF ORGANIZATION
OBJECTIVE
26: DESCRIBE PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION AND TECHNIQUES OF OUTLINING.
A
message usually consists of three phases: an introduction, a
body, and a conclusion. The substantive phase can be further
divided into a number of steps. The nature of these steps depends
on the transmitter's communicative purpose.
If the transmitter's communicative purpose is to persuade,
the substantive phase would be divided into the following steps:
I. Definition of Problem.
II. Analysis of Problem.
III. Establishment of Criteria for the Solution.
IV. Development of the Solution.
V. Implementation of the Solution.
The steps in the substantive phase for all four communication
purposes are discussed in Unit 5.
The material used to develop each of the steps in the
substantive phase as well as the material used in the introductory
and concluding phases can be patterned in one or more of the following
ways:
1. Chronological pattern.
2. Spatial pattern.
3. Topical pattern.
4. Cause-effect pattern.
5. Problem-solution pattern.
If
the communicative purpose is to inform, the substantive phase
itself would be divided using one of these patterns. Let us consider
each of the five patterns and how they may be used.
CHRONOLOGICAL PATTERN
The
chronological pattern arranges events in their order of occurrence
in time. This pattern is often used in describing how something
should be done or how a process works. The chronological pattern
is also useful for describing a past event or detailing the causes
of a problem when the causes developed over a period of time.
An example of the use of a chronological pattern is
the steps in preparing the soil for a vegetable garden:
I. Check the acidity level of the soil.
II. Apply compost before digging the soil.
III. Dig the soil.
IV. Rake the garden to get a fine soil consistency.
Note that the speaker here starts with the first thing
you would do in soil preparation and proceeds through time to
the final events.
SPATIAL PATTERN
Certain
subjects are best handled in a sequence that moves from one direction
to the other. For instance, in describing the instrument panel
of an airplane to a new pilot, we might begin on the extreme
left and move to the right. In describing the organizational
chart of a large company, we might begin at the top and move to
the bottom. In a discussion of the major agricultural products
grown in the United States we might begin on the east coast and
move across the country westwardly.
Let us look at how the transceiver chose to explain
her plan for a vegetable garden.
I. Here's my plan for my garden.
A. On the north side I will plant corn
so that it will not shade smaller
plants.
B. Just south of the corn I will plant
tomatoes which may also be quite
tall.
C. In the south half I will plant
beets, potatoes, and onions.
D. On the east edge I will plant
strawberries and asparagus.
TOPICAL PATTERN
Many
subjects break naturally into subtopics. Whenever this is the
case, it is wise to take advantage of the situation by discussing
each subtopic. In discussing efforts by American automobile manufacturers
to clean up air pollution, our discussion might be divided into
(1) efforts by General Motors, (2) efforts by Ford, and (3) efforts
by Chrysler.
Let us look at the way the transceiver explained the
criteria to be used in selecting a site for a vegetable garden.
I. There are three features to keep in
mind while selecting a site for your
garden.
A. The site should have the proper
amount of space for you.
B. The site should have direct
sunlight for about six hours each
day.
C. The site should have good drainage.
CAUSE-EFFECT PATTERN
Occasionally
a topic can be discussed in terms of the causes and effects of
a problem. Often the causes of the problem are discussed first
and then the effects. However, in some cases this order may be
reversed.
A
discussion of the problem of inflation could be arranged in the
cause-effect pattern very easily. First causes such as the laws
laws of supply and demand, wage-cost push, and government fiscal
policies could be discussed. Then effects such as higher prices
and economic inequities could be outlined.
A speaker used the variation of the cause-effect pattern
in which effects are discussed before causes in telling the audience
about the importance of planting vegetables at the right time.
I. Although my peas came up and grew well
for a while last year, they died without
producing peas.
II. I had planted in May and in our part of
the country peas must be planted in
February if they are going to produce.
PROBLEM-SOLUTION PATTERN
When
your communicative purpose is either problem-solving or persuasion,
you usually deal with the nature of a particular problem first
and then discuss the solution to the problem. This kind of organizational
pattern is known as problem-solution. Occasionally this pattern
can be used when you have a communicative purpose other than problem-solving
or persuasion.
Here is how a speaker used the problem-solution pattern
of arrangement to establish the importance of the topic in an
information-giving speech on gardening.
I. The "health" foods--fruits and
vegetables--may be dangerous to your
health.
A. In order to protect crops and keep
food prices low, U.S. food producers
use 820 million pounds of approved
pesticides a year.
1. The most commonly used
pesticides can cause cancer,
birth defects, and liver,
kidney, and nerve damage.
2. Five of the common pesticides
that cause damage are captan,
carbaryl, dimethoate,
endosulfan, and methamidophos.
B. The EPA has set restrictions on
pesticide use in the U.S., but 50% of
the fruits and vegetables consumed
here are produced abroad where
restrictions on pesticide use are not
as strict as they are here.
C. As Jay Feldman, national coordinator
of the National Coalition Against the
Misuse of Pesticides has noted in the
March 27, 1989, issue of Time:
1. The accumulated effect of
pesticide use constitutes a risk.
2. "The total toxic burden is too
high."
II. One way to minimize the risk of
consuming foods treated with pesticides
is to raise our own gardens.
OUTLINING
Outlining
your presentation for a public communication event is very important,
especially for the person who has little experience in public
discussion or public speaking. The most important benefit of
preparing an outline is that your are assured the ideas in your
presentation are being presented in a reasonable order. In other
words, outlining helps you to order ideas in a way that makes
sense to you and is likely to make sense to others.
A
second benefit of outlining is that you discover the points you
have not supported adequately before you actually make your presentation.
When you fail to make an outline, it is easy to never realize
that some of your assertions are not supported. When you prepare
an outline, your lack of support for an assertion becomes clear
during your preparation. Then you have time to find support for
the assertion or delete the assertion from your message.
The
first step in preparing an outline is to write down your specific
purpose. A speaker stated her specific purpose in this manner:
"I want the audience to understand how to raise their own
vegetable gardens."
The
second step is to list the main points that support the specific
purpose. The individual giving an information-giving speech on
gardening stated her main points in the planning stage in the
following manner
I. You must plan the garden.
II. You must put the plan into action.
Note
that each main point was stated in a single, complete sentence.
Note also that the sentences were worded in a parallel manner
and contained one idea.
The
third step involves developing each of the main points. This
is done by taking each main point in turn and listing the subpoints
that provide support for the main point. The speaker on gardening
developed the first main point as follows:
I. You must plan the garden.
A. Rate all vegetables you are
considering on desirability criteria.
B. Decide which vegetables you will grow.
C. Select the site of your garden.
D. Draw you garden plan to scale.
E. Select the seed.
Again
note that each symbol has only one idea and that each idea is
stated in a complete sentence. Another important factor to be
aware of in outlining is that each of the ideas supporting the
main point should be directly relevant to the main point. Also
each of the subpoints listed should be of equal importance; that
is, one of the subpoints should not be a division or part of another
subpoint.
Usually
you will find that each subpoint needs further development. When
each of the subpoints for the first main point has been developed,
you are ready to move to the development of the second main point.
The
entire outline for the speech on gardening is reproduced here.
Notice that a consistent set of symbols is utilized. Notice that
only one complete sentence is paired with each symbol. Notice
that points at the same level (Roman numerals, capital letters,
Arabic numerals, or noncapitalized letters) are of equal importance.
Notice
that subpoints are directly relevant to the point they support
and do not overlap each other. As you study the outline, try to
determine the pattern of organization used to sequence points
at the same level. For example, what pattern of organization
was used in sequencing points 1, 2, and 3 under II.C in the body?
The
Introductory Phase
I. The "health" foods--fruits and
vegetables--may be dangerous to your
health.
A. In order to protect crops and keep
food prices low, U.S. Food producers
use 820 million pounds of approved
pesticides a year.
1. Captan used on grapes, peaches,
strawberries, and apples can
cause cancer.
2. Carbaryl used on corn, bananas,
peaches, grapes, and oranges can
cause kidney damage.
3. Dimethoate used on green beans,
grapes, watermelon, cabbage, and
broccoli can cause cancer and
birth defects.
4. Endosulfan used on spinach,
lettuce, celery, strawberries,
cauliflower, and pears can cause
liver and kidney damage.
5. Methamidophos used on tomatoes,
cauliflower, cabbage, cantaloupe,
and bell peppers can affect the
nervous system.
B. The EPA has set restrictions on
pesticide use in the U.S., But 50% of
the fruits and vegetables consumed
here are produced abroad where
restrictions on pesticide use are not
as strict as they are here.
C. As Jay Feldman, national coordinator
of the National Coalition Against the
Misuse of Pesticides, has noted in the
March 27, 1989, issue of Time:
1. The accumulated effect of
pesticide use constitutes a risk.
2. "I may have Alar on my apples,
lead arsenate on my grapefruit,
captan on my vegetables. Alone,
each of them may constitute a
negligible risk. But when you add
them up, the total toxic burden is
too high."
II. One way to minimize the risk of consuming
foods treated with pesticides is to raise
our own gardens.
A. During the past ten years my family
has raised 90 per cent of its own
vegetables.
B. Raising your own vegetable garden
involves two major steps.
1. You must plan the garden.
2. You must put the plan into action.
The Body
I. You must plan the garden.
A. Rate vegetables on a number of
criteria.
1. Is the vegetable one that your
family enjoys eating?
2. Is the vegetable one that is
likely to be in limited supply in
supermarkets?
3. Is the vegetable expensive in the
supermarket?
4. Is the vegetable high in food
value?
B. Decide which vegetables you will
grow.
1. Vegetables with high rating
should be given top priority.
2. Vegetables that require large
amounts of space should be grown
only if you have sufficient space.
3. Vegetables that are not suited to
your geographic area should be
avoided.
C. Select the site of your garden.
1. The site should have the proper
amount of space for you.
a. The proper amount of space
for you depends on the space
you have available.
(i) If you have a backyard,
you will have plenty of
space.
(ii) Do not overlook the
possibility of window
boxes.
b. The proper amount of space
for you depends on how many
people will be fed from the
garden.
c. The proper amount of space
for you depends on how much
time you can give to
cultivating your garden.
2. The site should have direct
sunlight for about six hours a
day from early April through
early September.
3. The site should have good drainage.
D. Draw your garden plan to scale.
1. Plants that are likely to grow
tall should be planted so that
they do not shade other plants.
2. Perennial vegetables should be
located at one side so they do
not interfere with soil
preparation for annual plants.
3. Here is my plan for my garden.
a. On the north side I will
plant corn so that it will
not shade smaller plants.
b. Just south of the corn I will
plant tomatoes, which may
also be quite tall.
c. In the south half I will
plant beets, potatoes, and
onions.
d. On the east edge I will plant
strawberries and asparagus.
(i) These plants are perennials.
(Ii) They are separated so the
rest of the garden can be
cultivated without
disturbing them.

E. Select the seed.
1. Purchase new seeds.
a. According to the Wise Garden
Encyclopedia, 1970 edition
page 1111, most good
vegetables are hybrids.
b. Seeds saved from last year's
crop will not produce plants
like those from which they
came.
2. Purchase seeds for vegetables that
are suited to your geographic
location.
a. Your county extension agent
usually can recommend the
variety that does well in your
area.
b. Seed catalogs and gardening
supply dealers may also be
helpful.
II. You must put the plan into action
A. You must prepare the soil.
1. Check the acidity level of the
soil.
a. Just like bread without the
proper amount of yeast will
either not rise enough or
rise too much, plants will
not grow correctly unless
they have the proper amount
of acid.
b. A soil sample of about one
pint can be analyzed by your
county agent.
c. If your soil is too high or
too low in acidity, this
should be corrected before
you plant.
2. Apply compost before digging the
soil.
3. Dig the soil.
a. If the ground has been frozen
during the winter, wait until
the soil is dry.
b. Dig about eight to ten inches
deep throughout the garden.
4. Rake the garden to get a fine
soil consistency.
B. You must plant the garden.
1. Planting should be done about a
week or two after soil
preparation.
2. Planting should be done at the
right time for each kind of
vegetable.
a. Last year I planted peas in
early May, but after getting
a good start, they began to
die before they formed pods.
b. I had planted too late.
3. Planting should be done at the
proper depth for each kind of
vegetable.
C. You must care for the plants as they
mature.
1. Plants need water.
a. Water thoroughly about once a
week.
b. Avoid light sprinklings,
because plants will not set
deep roots if only the soil
surface is moistened.
2. Mulches can help plants if they
are properly used.
a. They conserve soil moisture.
b. They keep weeds down.
c. They produce an even soil
moisture.
d. They have some undesirable
effects which must be guarded
against.
(i) Some mulches contain seed
that may sprout and grow.
(Ii) Some mulches like black
plastic increase soil
temperature by absorbing more
heat than soil normally
would.
(iii) When mulches are placed too
close to plants, they may
cause plants to be thin and
"leggy."
3. Weeds must be kept under control.
a. Weeds can sap soil moisture
and crowd out vegetables.
b. Avoid hoeing weeds so deep
that you cut roots of
vegetables.
(i) Two years ago a friend of
mine hoed weeds in his corn
patch.
(Ii) The next morning all of the
corn was lying flat on the
ground because he had been
chopping too deep and too
close to the cornstalks.
The Conclusion
I. After you get home today, begin your work
on this two step procedure:
A. Plan your garden.
B. Put the plan into action.
II. For more information, consult with your
country extension agent.
III. When you complete this two-step
procedure, you can expect the following
results:
A. A more healthful supply of vegetables
will be on your table.
B. Better-tasting vegetables than you
can buy will please your palate.
C. You will find that your grocery
budget will stretch further.
D. You will have had an enjoyable time
doing something constructive.
REVIEW
You have met the objectives of this unit if you can
Describe
organization.
Describe outlining.
In
this unit we have focused on how we organize our messages. A
prepared message usually consists of three major parts: an introduction,
a substantive phase or body, and a conclusion. Although the introductions
and conclusions for informative and persuasive speeches differ
somewhat, they have these things in common: the introductions
prepare the receivers for the material presented in the body,
and the conclusions bring the presentation to a strategic close.
There
are five basic patterns of organization which can be used to develop
the body of an informative speech or to develop the five major
steps in the body of a persuasive speech. They are the following:
1. Chronological
pattern which arranges events according to a time sequence,
2. Spatial
pattern which orders things according to direction or their
arrangement in space,
3. Topical
pattern which breaks a large subject into its component parts,
4. Cause/effect
pattern which deals with a problem in terms of antecedents and
consequences, and
5. Problem/solution
pattern which is often used in persuasion but also can be used
to present material in informative speeches.
You
can double check your organization to see if it is complete and
logical by developing a sentence outline. Outlining consists
of the following steps:
1. Write
down your specific purpose.
2. List
the main points that support the specific purpose.
3. Develop
each of the main points by breaking each into its component
subpoints. Some subpoints will need further division.
4. Each
point should be written in a complete sentence and should contain
only one idea; each subpoint should be directly relevant to
the point it is under; and each subpoint at a given level of
subordination should be of equal importance.
5. Prepare
the introduction and conclusion.
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