PURPOSES
PREVIEW
Communication
encounters serve several general purposes that ultimately help
us adapt to our environment. For instance, we spend quite a bit
of time trying to find or get information about our environment.
Other times, our purpose in communicating may be to inform others,
to solve problems, to persuade or to be persuaded, to entertain
or to be entertained. We have many purposes for receiving and
transmitting messages.
One
of the characteristics of the structured communication encounters
considered here is that one or more parties to the encounters
have a preconceived purpose. This is not to say that all the
participants have a preconceived purpose which they can articulate,
nor is this to say that the parties to the encounters have the
same or even similar general purposes.
In
this unit we will focus on five general purposes of communication:
information-getting, information-giving, problem solving, persuasion,
and entertainment. For each of these general purposes, we will
examine some of the attitudes, abilities, and formats that lead
to more effective communication encounters.
The
learning materials have been designed so that you can conduct
an interview, participate in a discussion, present a public speech,
or create online materials with any of the communicative purposes
appropriate to the encounter. As you demonstrate how to participate
in a particular communicative encounter (for example, an online
discussion or a public speech), a knowledge of the attitudes,
abilities, and format applicable to your purpose in the encounter
will be essential.
By the end of this unit, you should be able to
Name five general purposes of communication, and construct
sample specific purposes based on each.
Describe
the information-getting purpose of communication.
Describe
the information-giving purpose of communication.
Describe
the problem-solving purpose of communication.
Describe
the persuasive purpose of communication.
Describe the entertainment purpose of communication.
THE NATURE OF GENERAL AND SPECIFIC PURPOSES
UNIT OBJECTIVE
01: NAME FIVE GENERAL PURPOSES OF COMMUNICATION, AND CONSTRUCT
SAMPLE SPECIFIC PURPOSES BASED ON EACH.
The
communication encounters we deal with in this book have at least
one these general purposes: information-getting, information-giving,
problem-solving, persuasion, and entertainment . In order to
formulate a more specific focus, we need to know the topic, issue,
or problems we want to address. Carefully constructed specific
purposes dealing with socially significant issues are the backbone
of effective encounters in a communication course. Let us examine
briefly both the nature of the five general purposes and the nature
of specific purposes in communication encounters.
General Purposes of Communication
Both
the information-getting and -giving purposes have learning as
their goal--learning about things and people. As a student, your
final course grade in sociology, for instance, may depend on a
term project that calls for finding sophisticated answers to current
social problems. As an engineer, business executive, agricultural
specialists, etc., your ability to gather information that can
be applied to pressing problems posed in your day-to-day job
will be an important determinant of your success in your chosen
career.
Other
communicative encounters require you to give instructions to others
or describe the nature of a problem situation to your superiors.
Businesses often lose a great deal of money because instructions
are not clear to those who must carry them out. Ineffective information-givers
may not be promoted as quickly as others because "people
can't make heads-or tails out of what they say."
The
problem-solving purpose is concerned with finding viable solutions
to blocked goals. The principles and techniques associated with
problem-solving apply equally well to making decisions about our
physical environments as they do to making decisions about social,
political, psychological, or even very personal and private concerns.
As developed here problem-solving includes such activities as
conflict resolution and amelioration of feelings. Should you
buy a new car? Should you change your major? Should the university
change its method of evaluating students? Should the method of
electing the President of the United States be changed? These
are some of the problems we attempt to solve by communicating
with others.
In
many situations action must be taken by large groups of people.
You and a small group of your friends cannot solve most of the
important problems facing our world today by yourselves. You must
secure the active cooperation of others who may not be as interested
and knowledgeable about the problem you wish to solve as you are.
How do you get such cooperation? One of the best methods of getting
others to act is persuasion. The persuasive purpose focuses upon
fostering both attitude and behavioral changes.
The
entertainment purpose of communication is pervasive ranging from
jokes you share with friends to the sports and games you play
as well as the adventures you undertake. Entertainment provides
people with a diversion from their workaday lives. As leisure
time increases, we engage in recreational activities to fill that
time.
Several
other general purposes of communication can be derived by combining
aspects of the four mentioned above. Although not specifically
considered in the remainder of this unit, these are some of the
derived general purposes. The employment-seeking purpose typically
occurs during interviews where the employer is striving to gain
information about the respondent, give information about the company,
and persuade the interviewee that the job is a good one. Similarly,
the interviewee strives to learn more about the job, give information
about him/herself, and persuade the employer he/she is the best
person for the job. The appraisal, reprimanding, and counseling
purposes normally involve some information-getting and -giving,
some problem-solving, and some persuasion. The complaint-receiving
purpose often involves both information-getting and problem-solving.
Specific Purposes of Communication
In
the early stages of planning structured communication encounters,
it is wise to specify not only your general purpose but your specific
purpose(s) also. A specific purpose specifies the precise response
to a topic that you are seeking from participants in the encounter.
For instance, your general purpose may be to persuade; your specific
purpose may be to get your friend to lose weight. You may have
a information-getting purpose; specifically, you may want to find
voter attitudes toward pending gambling legislation. Or again
your general purpose may be persuasion, but this time your specific
purpose may be to get people to vote against pending gambling
legislation.
Three
elements must be considered when formulating a specific purpose:
the precise response, the topic, and the participants. Your precise
response must be consistent with your general purpose. If your
general purpose is to inform, the precise response would have
something to do with increasing knowledge or learning. Precise
responses for persuasive presentations range considerably: you
may want to reinforce or change an attitude; to adopt, modify,
or stop a behavior; etc.
The
topic affects how a specific purpose is stated. Very often the
topic of communication is specified by someone other than your
self. But many times you have control over the selection of the
topic. The choice of socially significant or important topics
enhances your credibility and marks you as a person concerned
about the welfare of others.
The
participants affect the construction of a specific purpose. Trying
to get people outside the city limits to vote for a mayor of a
city would not be a reasonable specific purpose. The participants
place constraints upon the precise response we seek from an encounter.
Stating
a specific purpose early in the game lays the foundation for preparing
for the encounter. It also specifies what must be accomplished
in order for the encounter to be deemed a success. The specific
purpose is a very important measure of effectiveness in communication
encounters.
THE INFORMATION-GETTING GENERAL PURPOSE
UNIT OBJECTIVE
02: DESCRIBE THE INFORMATION-GETTING PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION.
What
we want to consider now is one of the general purposes of communication:
the information-getting purpose. In an indirect way, we already
have considered the information-getting purpose in Unit 3, the
unit on listening. Generally when we listen in order to acquire
answers to definite questions, to understand directions, to obtain
news of current interest, to acquire the opinions and views of
others, etc., we have an information-getting purpose. We seek
information in order to learn about and, consequently, to adapt
to our environment.
The
information we try to obtain from others is not always about things
and relationships among things. We may also desire information
about people and characteristics of people--their beliefs, attitudes,
and feelings. Information-getting may mean "belief-getting"
or "attitude-getting" or "feeling-getting"
as well as fact gathering.
Why
are we emphasizing this point? Our experience has shown us that
students are quick to grasp the first notion about the information-getting
purpose. They already know that you have this purpose when you
collect information about some topic for a discussion, speech,
or theme. But they sometimes overlook the second notion of finding
out about people. When you try to find out what a person is like,
what her perceptions of herself are, what her views of others
are, you have an information-getting purpose. Many times we think
of information as something like the 1990 census figures, the
dates and locations of the major battles in Viet Nam, the chemical
properties of H2SO4, etc. But "information" can also
be about people's interests, values, tastes, etc.
Although
we may seek information or explore what we already know about
a topic at the intrapersonal level and seek information through
public hearings at the public level, information-getting encounters
most typically occur at the interpersonal level of communicative
interaction. Both information-getting interviews and information-getting
group discussions (or learning discussions) are frequently conducted
to supplement our knowledge. In order to achieve the information-getting
purpose in an effective way, we must possess suitable attitudes,
abilities, and an appropriate format to guide us through the encounter.
Attitudes and Abilities
An
open-minded attitude is an essential prerequisite to productive
information gathering. The preconceptions and assumptions of
the investigator must be held in check. As part of the preparation
for information gathering, the investigator should routinely discover
and examine the biases, prejudices, pet theories, etc., he has
concerning the matter under investigation. He should then work
to control the effects of such predispositions. An open-minded
attitude does not mean the investigator is totally free of bias;
it is impossible for a human being to erase all preconceptions
from her memory banks at will. But it is possible for a person
to make allowances for her biases and to make controlled observations.
The
discovery of relevant and significant information places extensive
demands on our abilities to ask effective questions and to accurately
input and process the answers they elicit. Unit 7, the interviewing
unit, goes into considerable detail on the art of asking questions.
We have considered previously our ability to listen effectively
in Unit 3 and the ability to separate observations from inferences
in Unit 4. Any time we have an information-getting purpose, the
abilities to (1) ask effective questions, (2) listen effectively,
and (3) separate fact from inference are of paramount importance.
An Information-Getting Format
It
is also essential to have a systematic approach to the subject
under investigation. Most information-getting encounters can
be divided into three major parts:
The Introduction
The Body
The Conclusion
In
general, the introduction should arouse the interest of the participants
in the encounter, establish the credibility of the participants,
and orient the participants to the subject under consideration.
The conclusion should summarize the main points in the investigation,
secure any corrections or additions to the proceedings, and clearly
establish where the participants "should go from here."
The
body focuses on the investigation of the subject under consideration
in both the interview and group discussion. However, the specific
chain of events in the body of the interview is somewhat different
from that of the group discussion. Let us consider both types
of information-getting encounters separately.
FORMAT FOR BODY OF THE INTERVIEW
Suppose
you are interested in finding our what the local police department
is doing about the drug problem and decide to interview some police
officials. During your planning operation before the actual interviews,
you would need to clearly define and delimit your topic of inquiry.
Also you would need to break down your main topic into the subtopics
about which you want to ask specific questions. You would formulate
questions designed to cover each of the areas prior to the interviews.
During
the actual interviews, you would ask the questions developed during
your planning operations. Hence, the body of an information-getting
interview consists primarily of asking questions and recording
responses. In essence, the body of the actual interviews consists
of your investigation of the matter under consideration.
FORMAT FOR BODY OF THE LEARNING DISCUSSION
Definition,
analysis, and investigation are the three steps that occur during
actual group sessions in the substantive phase of an information-getting
or learning discussion. It may be that a group deals with more
than one step in a given session, or it might take the group several
sessions to accomplish one step.
Step
One: Definition. After the introduction, the group translates
the topic into a question and carefully examines each term in
the question. During the definitional step you should:
A. State
the specific question the group should try to answer.
B. Define
any unclear terms.
Step
Two: Analysis. After the group arrives at a satisfactory understanding
of the question under consideration, the group weighs the importance
of the question and narrows the scope of the discussion to those
areas that seem most significant. In this step, you should:
A. Discover
the importance of the question to the group members.
B. Divide
the question into subsidiary questions. (For typical patterns
of organization, see Unit 10.)
C. Decide
on which subquestions the discussion should be focused.
D. Summarize
the analysis
Toward
the conclusion of the analysis step, the group as a whole should
summarize the topics resulting from the narrowing-down process,
and it should decide on the order of investigation. See Unit
10 for suggestions concerning the organization of topics.
Step
Three: Investigation. The members of the group should investigate
systematically and in order each topic chosen as a result of the
analysis. The subsequent discussion of each topic typically centers
around the following activities:
A. Clarify
any unclear terms in the subquestion.
B. Consider
the historical, social, economic, political, etc., context surrounding
the subquestion.
C. Consider
the personal experiences of group members that are relevant
to the subquestion being discussed.
D. Present
pertinent evidence and reasoning on the subquestion. (See Unit
8 for how to evaluate evidence and reasoning.)
E. Draw
appropriate inferences and/or conclusions.
After each of the topics has been thoroughly investigated
by the group, the group moves to the conclusion of the information
getting format.
In
summary, the complete information-getting format for both the
interview and discussion includes an introduction, body, and conclusion.
The introduction and conclusion are quite similar in both. However,
the body of an interview consists primarily of investigating the
subject under study, whereas the body of a group discussion includes
the definition, analysis, and investigation of the subject being
considered.
THE INFORMATION-GIVING PURPOSE
UNIT OBJECTIVE
03: DESCRIBE THE INFORMATION-GIVING PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION.
Just
as the information-getting purpose demands highly developed inputting
and processing skills, the information-giving purpose challenges
our ability to process and output information effectively. In
many respects, information-giving is the mirror image of information-getting.
With information-getting, learning is the object, and we are the
learners. With information-giving, learning is also the object;
but we want other people to learn about us and the things we know.
The
information-giving purpose occurs frequently at all levels of
communication interaction. It occurs when we communicate intrapersonally
and interpersonally or transmit messages to an audience. In all
cases the attitudes, abilities, and format required for this purpose
are the same.
Attitudes and Abilities
In
order to give information effectively, we must have the desire
to be understood by the information receiver. This concern for
the understanding of the partners in the communication encounter
is the key attitude. It is this desire that encourages the information-giver
to speak from the viewpoint of the listener rather than from his/her
own frame of reference.
The
ability to output both verbal and nonverbal information effectively
is a necessity. Verbal and nonverbal messages must be interesting
and clear so that they will be remembered by the receivers. Before
attempting assessments involving an information-giving purpose,
you should master the concepts, principles, and techniques developed
in Unit 10 and Unit 11. These units help perfect your verbal
outputting in the areas of organizing, supporting, and wording
messages and help perfect your delivery of vocal and bodily nonverbal
messages You should study these two units before proceeding.
An Information-Giving Format
Like the information-getting format, the information-giving
format can be divided into three basic phases:
The Introduction
The Body
The Conclusion
In
addition to arousing the interest of the participants in the encounter,
establishing the credibility of the participants, and orienting
the participants to the subject under consideration, the introduction
has two additional duties to perform. It should (1) indicate
why the participants need the information and (2) preview or summarize
the points that will be developed during the substantive phase.
Let us look at each of these two additional duties in more detail.
First,
the information should be related to the participants in the encounter.
Perhaps the information simply fulfills the curiosity of the participants,
or maybe the information is necessary for more impelling reasons.
In terms of the hierarchy of needs examined in Unit 6, what needs
should this information satisfy?
1. Physiological
or survival needs?
2. Safety
or security needs?
3. Affection
or affiliation needs?
4. Achievement
or self-esteem needs?
5. Self-fulfillment
or self-actualization needs?
A transceiver analysis profile of your partners in
the encounter will help discover the appropriate needs.
Second,
the subject or topic should be broken into the two or three major
divisions that will be covered. This partitioning of the subject
should preview what is to be presented in the next step. It should
be a kind of initial summary of what is to follow. The division
of the subject should be organized in a pattern appropriate to
the subject and appropriate to the listeners. Sometimes the most
"logical" pattern of arrangement is not the best sequence
because it is not familiar to the listeners. It is essential to
sequence your material in terms of the listeners. Always start
where the listener is, not where your are. Of course your transceiver
analysis profile will once again help you out on this score.
The conclusion should include a final summary of the
points covered, an opportunity for the listeners to receive further
clarification on any points that may be hazy to them, and a definite
indication of where the participants "should go from here"
or what should be done with the information.
The
body typically presents the detailed information on the subject
being learned about. In this step each point suggested in the
introductory phase should be brought up in the order in which
it was previewed. Detailed information should be presented for
each point. Use a variety of ways to develop your points. Often
information is not remembered because it is not interesting.
Illustrations and instances are much more interesting than dry
explanation. In short, this step should be developed using the
concepts, principles, and techniques presented in Unit 10.
You
may have noticed that during the introduction, the information-giver
essentially "tells 'em what she's going to tell 'em";
she "tells 'em" during the body; and then she "tells
'em what she told 'em she was going to tell 'em" in the conclusion.
Because repetition is necessary for memory, the information-giving
format makes much use of summaries: previews, internal reviews
or flashbacks, wrap-up transitions, and final summaries.
Interpersonal vs. Public Encounters
When
information-giving takes place in a dyad or small group, the information-giver
will spend about as much time listening as speaking. He uses
the question-answer process to find his partners' areas of interest,
to find their areas of expertise, to find out what they already
know about the subject. It is through listening that the information-giver
discovers the needs of the participants; it is through listening
and spontaneous transceiver analysis that he is able to adapt
his information to others. As he presents the information, he
is able to look for signs of misunderstanding, to ask the respondent
to paraphrase his interpretation of difficult points, and to invite
questions from his partners.
One
of the most frequent mistakes of beginning students is to assume
the information-giving in interpersonal encounters means that
the information-giver does most or all of the speaking. To do
most or all of the transmission would be to fail to take advantage
of the unique opportunities for increased comprehension, and hence
learning, offered by interpersonal encounters.
Of
course public encounters require considerable reliance on anticipated
listener responses and prior analysis. The value of a transceiver
analysis profile cannot be overstated for a public presentation.
Although an information-giver can invite questions from the audience
during or after her presentation, she must depend for the most
part on her ability to draw appropriate inferences about probable
audience reactions in order to avoid misinterpretation of material.
THE PROBLEM-SOLVING GENERAL PURPOSE
UNIT OBJECTIVE
04: DESCRIBE THE PROBLEM-SOLVING PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION.
In
the first section of this unit we explored the concepts of general
purpose and specific purpose in communication. Now we will explore
problem-solving as one of these general purposes. Problems occur
when our goals are blocked by barriers or obstacles. We devise
solutions in order to permit us to reach our goals by reducing,
circumventing, or overcoming these barriers. In communication,
we have a problem-solving purpose when we receive and transmit
messages with the intention of overcoming barriers to our desired
goals.
Just
as the information-getting purpose places extraordinary demands
on the transceiver's ability to input information accurately,
the problem-solving purpose requires exceptional precision in
the processing of information. As suggested in Unit 4, effective
processing means, in part, critical thinking or problem-solving
thinking. Whether your focus is the intrapersonal or interpersonal
or public level of communicative interaction, the problem-solving
purpose requires that you have appropriate attitudes, abilities,
and a systematic plan of attack.
Attitudes and Abilities
The
problem-solving purpose demands a nonemotional attitude and an
attitude of flexibility. To sum it up, the purpose requires a
scientific attitude. A scientific attitude is characterized by
caution, a healthy skepticism, taking a tentative position, testing
repeatedly, experimentation, and controlled observation.
Among
the abilities required by the problem-solving purpose, two stand
out: the ability to evaluate evidence and the ability to evaluate
reasoning. These abilities are described in detail in Unit 8.
You should turn to this section and study the material before
proceeding.
A Problem-Solving Format*
*This
format is based on the model explained in John Dewey, How We Think
(Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1933).
We
have now discussed two of the demands that a problem solving purpose
places on you: appropriate attitudes and appropriate abilities.
Let us now take a look at that third extremely important requirement--the
systematic plan of attack.
Many times potential problem-solvers fail in their
purpose, not because they lack appropriate attitudes and abilities,
but because they have no systematic plan for attacking the problem.
Having a problem-solving format is essential.
The system we use in this course is presented below:
Introduction
Body
I. Definition
of the Problem
II. Analysis
of the Problem
III.
Establishment of Criteria for the Solution
IV. Discovery
of Possible Solutions
V. Selection
of Best Solution
VI. Implementation
of Solution
Conclusion
The
introduction attempts to capture the interest of those involved,
deal with the credibility of the participating parties, and orient
the parties to the situation. The conclusion attempts to summarize
the main points in the encounter and should clearly establish
where each participant "should go from here."
The
body of a problem-solving encounter consists of six steps. Prior
to the first step of problem-solving, "something" happens
that leaves us feeling confused, perplexed, and baffled. The feeling
of disequilibrium is often the first clue that there is a problem--that
a goal has been blocked by some barrier. Usually, we do not know
immediately what the problem is: we just have an uncomfortable
feeling. Let us consider each step of the problem-solving format
in detail.
Step
One: Definition of the Problem. The first step of the problem-solving
format is definition of the problem. One of the biggest problems
in problem-solving is figuring out what the problem really is.
We are off to a good start if we can merely verbalize our uncomfortable
feelings in the form of a question. When defining the problem
you should:
A. State
the problem in the form of a question.
B. Define
any unclear terms.
Step
Two: Analysis of the Problem. Often this step is the most demanding
in terms of time and effort. When analyzing the problem you should:
A. State
the observable effects of the problem. Support the existence
of these effects with available statistics, testimony, specific
instances, and illustrations. (See Units 8 and Unit 10 for
information about evidence, reasoning, and supporting materials.)
B. Cite
the causes of the problem. (Do not overlook historical, social,
economic, political, etc., causes. Do not overlook the possibility
that the problem is a result of misunderstandings or emotional
conflicts.)
C. Decide
which causal aspects of the problem are amenable to correction.
Step
Three: Establishment of Criteria for the Solution. The third
step of the problem-solving format is to establish criteria for
the solution. In the light of your analysis of the problem, by
what criteria should any proposed plan or remedy be judged? More
specifically:
A. State
what the solution must do.
B. State
what the solution must avoid. (Consider legal, ethical, monetary,
time, etc., restrictions.)
This essential step in the format sets up the standards
by which your solution will be judged.
Step
Four: Discovery of Possible Solutions The fourth step in the
format is to discover possible solutions. This step should be
the most permissive, free, and uncritical of all the steps in
the format. One of the biggest mistakes is evaluating, criticizing,
and judging each solution as it comes up. At this point you are
interested in the quantity of solutions not the quality. Brainstorming
is often highly productive in this step. Specifically you should:
A. State
all possible solutions.
B. Describe
each proposed solution in detail.
Step
Five: Selection of the Best Solution. The selection of the best
solution involves (1) the evaluation of each possible solution
in terms of the criteria established in step three and (2) the
choice of the solution you intend to put into effect. The following
activities may be performed during this step:
A. Group
the proposed solutions for consideration.
B. Discuss
the similarities and differences of the proposed solutions.
C. Evaluate
each of the proposed solutions using the criteria set up in
step three.
D. Eliminate
inadequate solutions and retain adequate solutions for further
consideration.
E. Decide
which solution or combination of solutions should be selected.
1. Decide
whether undesirable aspects of the selected solution(s) can
be eliminated or modified.
2. If
more than one solution is selected, decide how desirable aspects
of each solution can be integrated into a single solution.
Step
Six: Implementation of Solution. Too often a person or a group
of persons makes a decision and then fails to take action. They
fail to set up the machinery for the implementation of the solution.
In this final, important step, you should:
A. Decide
when and where the solution should be implemented.
B. Decide
who should be responsible for implementing the solution.
C. Decide
what action should be taken.
Let
us emphasize that merely naming the steps in the problem solving
format does not guarantee that the problem will be solved. Moreover,
you should not move mechanically and rigidly through the steps.
For instance, proposed solutions may suggest changes in the analysis
of causes or effects, in the criteria, or even in the definition
of the problem. But having a problem-solving format offers a
systematic approach that gives you a good chance of coming up
with a satisfactory solution.
You
should now be able to describe the characteristics of a problem-solving
purpose. You should be able to characterize the attitudes, abilities,
and format that are necessary for achieving your problem-solving
purpose.
Interpersonal vs. Public Encounters
Like
the information-giver in a dyad or small group, the problem-solver
will spend at least as much time listening as speaking. She uses
the question-answer process to find her partners' areas of interest,
to find their areas of expertise, to find out what they already
know about the problem. It is through listening that the problem-solver
discovers the needs and values of the participants. During the
problem-solving session, she is able to look for signs of misunderstanding,
to ask the respondent to paraphrase his interpretation of difficult
points, and to invite questions from her partners.
Of
course public encounters require considerable reliance on anticipated
listener responses and prior analysis. The value of a transceiver
analysis profile cannot be overstated for a public presentation.
Although a problem-solver can invite questions from the audience
during or after her presentation, she must depend for the most
part on her ability to draw appropriate inferences about probable
audience reactions the problem under consideration.
THE PERSUASIVE GENERAL PURPOSE
UNIT OBJECTIVE
05: DESCRIBE THE PERSUASIVE PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION.
You have a persuasive purpose in communication when
you receive and send messages in order to promote desired changes
in attitudes and/or behavior in yourself or others.
Notice
that we use the term "promote." If I am interested
in persuading you to do something and if that "something"
gets done, you were the one who had the power of decision. I
as the persuader can set up conditions that promote changes in
attitude or behavior, but you as the persuadee have the power
to decide if the changes will be accepted or rejected. I as a
persuader cannot literally change you: if the changes come about,
it is you--as the persuadee--who does the changing.
Notice
also that we speak of desired changes. This means that before
persuasion can take place, the persuadee must want the changes
to take place. It is this notion that separates persuasion from
coercion and intimidation. Both coercion and intimidation promote
changes through the threat or use of force. They promote changes
whether the individual desires the changes or not. Coercion and
intimidation force acceptance of changes in attitudes and/or behavior.
There
is a variety of changes in attitude and/or behavior a persuader
may want to promote. For instance, she may be interested in getting
us to adopt an attitude or behavior we do not presently possess.
She may try to deter us from believing something or doing something
someone else is advocating. Or she may attempt to strengthen
or reinforce an opinion or behavior we already have. It may be
that she desires for us to discontinue believing in something
or acting in a certain way. These are four of the changes a persuader
may request.
Let us consider the attitudes, abilities, and format
necessary for successful persuasion.
Attitudes and Abilities
Because
the effective persuader has a persuadee-centered attitude, you
should have a thorough understanding of Unit 6, "Transceiver
Analysis," before proceeding. A persuader works through
the persuadee's self perceptions in order to achieve an effect.
He realizes a persuadee who feels totally satisfied with his present
lot will not change his attitude and/or behavior simply because
someone asks him to do so. A persuadee-centered attitude compels
an effective persuader to discover the relevant areas of dissatisfaction
within a persuadee.
In addition, the effective persuader must have the
ability (1) to make the persuadee aware of her own dissatisfactions
and (2) to present the advocated attitude and/or behavior change
as the best way of overcoming the persuadee's dissatisfactions.
For
instance, if I feel perfectly satisfied with the lighting along
the streets of my city, it is unlikely that I will vote to increase
my taxes for better lighting. Suppose you are interested in persuading
me to vote for better lighting. Upon constructing a walk home
from work after the sun has set. Moreover, you may conclude
in the profile that I have high priority safety and security needs.
You as a persuader may try to break through my complacency on
the lighting issue by relating vivid incidents of people being
mugged or killed while walking after dark. If you are able to
alert me to the inconsistency between my cognition that it is
okay for me to walk home from work and the cognition that it is
dangerous being out after dark, I will experience an uncomfortable
tension. This felt dissatisfaction is sometimes called "cognitive
dissonance."*
*See
Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Evanston, Ill.:
Row, Peterson, 1957).
Not
only can you promote cognitive dissonance by presenting new information
that is contradictory, discrepant, or inconsistent with my need-related
perceptions, you can make me aware of contradictory, discrepant,
or inconsistent cognitions I already hold. If I believed that
"dark streets are unsafe" and that "I am safe on
the streets at night," you could promote cognitive dissonance
by making me aware of the discrepancy of these two beliefs. At
any rate, once I experience cognitive dissonance, I seek to release
this uncomfortable tension. You as a persuader may suggest that
I vote for the lighting project as a way of restoring cognitive
balance. You may help me reduce the uncomfortable tension by supplying
the cognition that will make everything right for me again--"better
lighting means safer streets."
However,
the experiencing of cognitive dissonance does not necessarily
mean that the persuadee will accept the attitude or behavior being
promoted by the persuader. Most certainly, the persuadee strives
to eliminate the uncomfortable tension by restoring her system
to a state of balance. Accepting the attitude or behavior is
only one of the alternatives open to the persuadee.
What
are some of the other alternatives? (1) The persuadee may choose
not to believe the persuader. For instance, I may say that you
made up those stories about people being mugged or killed. (2)
The persuadee may rationalize by saying, "It may apply, but
not to me." I may convince myself that muggings and killings
do not occur in my part of town. (3) The persuadee may become
angry and repress the information. I might get mad at you and
forget about the whole thing. (4) The persuadee may accept some
change other than that proposed by the persuader. Instead of
voting to provide better lighting along our city streets, I may
cope with my safety need--the fear of being mugged or killed--by
staying off the streets at night or buying a gun.
The
persuader can increase the likelihood that the persuadee will
perceive the proposed attitude or behavior as the best way of
eliminating the dissonance and restoring cognitive balance. The
persuader can do this by showing that the proposed attitude and/or
behavior meets the persuadee's important needs more fully than
the persuadee's old attitudes and/or behaviors and more fully
than any other proposal.
From
the foregoing, the close relation between a persuadee centered
attitude and the abilities to promote and then to aid in the reduction
of cognitive dissonance should be evident. Unless the persuader
knows the persuadee well enough to infer his top priority needs
correctly, the promotion of cognitive dissonance become a hit-or-miss
proposition. The person who has strong achievement needs would
probably experience little dissonance hearing about muggings or
killings. However, he might experience quite a bit of tension
if it were brought to his attention that fewer and fewer customers
are shopping at his stores at night.
A Persuasive Format
The
persuasive sequence suggested for this course consists of the:
Introduction
The Body
I. Definition
of Problem
II. Analysis
of Problem
III.
Establishment of Criteria for the Solution
IV. Development
of the Solution
V. Implementation
of the Solution
Conclusion
The
introduction should arouse the interest of the participants in
the encounter, establish the credibility of the persuader, and
orient the participants to the problem. The conclusion should
summarize the main points, challenge the persuadee(s) to act or
adopt the proposal, and clearly indicate "where the participants
should go from here."
Essentially
the body of a persuasive presentation is derived from the six
steps in the problem-solving format. The main difference in the
problem-solving format and the persuasive sequence is that we
usually telescope steps four and five into one step. So for the
complete persuasive presentation--one that develops a problem
and solution--we have these things happening in the body part
of the presentation:
I. Define
the problem in terms of persuadee needs.
A. Make
a clear statement of the problem.
B. Define
any unclear terms.
II. Analyze
the problem in terms of persuadee needs. (Creation of cognitive
dissonance during this step.)
A. State
the observable effects of the problem. (Use vivid forms of
support to describe the situation; see "forms of support"
in Unit 10. Use appropriate evidence to prove an unsatisfactory
situation exists; see "evaluating evidence" in Unit
8.)
B. Cite
the causes of the problem. (See "forms of support"
in Unit 10 and "evaluating reasoning" in Unit 8.)
C. Emphasize
what specific aspects of the present situation must be corrected.
III. Establish
criteria in terms of persuadee values.
A. Suggest
what the plan must do.
B. Indicate
what the plan must avoid.
IV. Develop
the solution in terms of satisfying persuadee needs. (Eliminating
dissonance and restoring cognitive balance during this step.)
A. Describe
the proposal in detail.
B. Describe
how the proposal is desirable in terms of the criteria (i.e.,
in terms of persuadee values).
1.
Present vivid forms of support.
2.
Present sound evidence.
3.
Present sound reasoning.
C. Describe
how the proposal avoids undesirabilities in terms of the criteria
(i.e., in terms of persuadee values).
1.
Present vivid forms of support.
2.
Present sound evidence.
3.
Present sound reasoning.
V. Show
exactly what the persuadee can do to implement the solution.
Of
course, this format must be adapted to the specific persuadees
and topic under consideration. If the persuadee is already persuaded
that a problem exists, only very brief amounts of time will be
spent on steps one and two of the format.
Also,
if the persuader breaks down his topic into three major divisions
or issues, he will need to preview each contention at the outset
of the analysis step. He will then take up each point in order
and go through the analysis step from A to C for the first point,
then A to C for the second, and A to C for the third.
He
will then want to summarize the points briefly before considering
the criteria for the proposal. Because of the complexity of many
persuasive presentations, summaries of all types--previews, flashbacks,
wrap-up transitions, final summaries--are extremely important
if the persuadee is to follow the lines of argument.
Interpersonal vs. Public Encounters
Similar
to information-giving interpersonal encounters, persuasive interpersonal
encounters require the persuader to do about as much listening
as speaking. He will make great use of the question-answer process
to achieve his purpose--for example, to locate persuadee needs,
values, beliefs, etc. He will work to get the persuadee to aid
in the definition and analysis of the problem. He will be especially
concerned in getting the persuadee to aid in the criteria establishment.
After presenting his proposal, the persuader will want to hear
the objections the persuadee has in mind; knowing these objections
allows him to meet those he can and incorporate the views of the
persuadee in a possible compromise solution. It is extremely
important to secure a definite oral or written commitment from
the persuadee concerning the implementation of the proposal; the
interpersonal encounter provides an excellent opportunity for
this commitment.
Public
encounters will not permit you to tailor-make the persuasive message
to the persuadees quite so well. Once again, extensive reliance
must be made on a well-conceived and well-thought-out transceiver
analysis profile.
THE ENTERTAINMENT PURPOSE
UNIT OBJECTIVE
06: DESCRIBE THE ENTERTAINMENT PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION.
When
you have an entertainment purpose, your messages provide a diversion
for people. Often humor is used in achieving an entertainment
purpose. But scary stories also entertain us. Other entertainment
may give us a thrill not experienced in our workaday lives.
The
entertainment purpose occurs frequently at all levels of communication
interaction. It occurs when we communicate intrapersonally and
interpersonally or transmit messages to an audience. In all cases
the attitudes, abilities, and format required for this purpose
are the same.
Attitudes and Abilities
In
order to entertain, we must have the desire to please the receiver.
This concern for the gratification of the partners in the communication
encounter is the key attitude. It is this desire that encourages
the entertainer to speak from the viewpoint of the listener rather
than from his/her own frame of reference.
The
ability to cope with the receiver's expectations is essential.
Just as the persuader must be able to create and then reduce cognitive
dissonance in the minds of her receivers, the entertainer must
be skilled in surprising us with an unexpected turn. Sporting
activities, games, action adventures, and comedy all rest on the
element of surprise inherent in the unknown outcomes of the events.
Coping
with expectations is a special case of creating and reducing cognitive
dissonance. People are usually amused when they see a very large,
overweight man on a tiny donkey. It is the dissonance between
the expected and unexpected that causes us to resolve the matter
by smiling or laughing. Video games are addictive because of the
uncertainty of the outcome of the game; once we have mastered
the games and they become predictable, we lose interest in them.
An Entertainment Format
Like other purposes, the entertainment format can be
divided into three basic phases:
The Introduction
The Body
The Conclusion
The
introduction should arouse the interest of the participants in
the encounter, establish the credibility of the entertainer, and
orient the participants to what will happen in the encounter.
The issue of interest is critical in achieving an entertainment
purpose. Factors of attention or interest include activity or
movement, reality, proximity, familiarity, novelty, suspense,
conflict, humor, and the vital. The image that the entertainer
projects must gain the goodwill of the receivers. Also, setting
the stage with a proper orientation is critical.
The
conclusion should summarize the main points, give a sense of finality,
and clearly indicate "where the participants should go from
here." Your
want the receivers to leave the encounter with the desire to return
again for more
Like
the information-giving format, the body typically presents the
detailed information on the topic of entertainment. For instance,
many standup comics will make a point and then support the point
with a variety of illustrations and instances. They will make
a transition to the second point and develop it with a variety
of forms of support. They continue this process until they have
completed their routine.
Interpersonal vs. Public Encounters
Similar
to persuasive interpersonal encounters, entertainment encounters
require the entertainer to do about as much listening as speaking.
He will make great use of the question-answer process to achieve
his purpose--for example, to locate receiver needs, values, beliefs,
etc. He will work to get the persuadee to aid in the entertainment
Public
encounters will not permit you to tailor-make the entertainment
message to the listeners quite so well. Once again, extensive
reliance must be made on a well-conceived and well-thought-out
transceiver analysis profile.
REVIEW
You have met the objectives of this unit if you can
Name five general purposes of communication, and construct
sample specific purposes based on each.
Describe
the information-getting purpose of communication.
Describe
the information-giving purpose of communication.
Describe
the problem-solving purpose of communication.
Describe
the persuasive purpose of communication.
Describe the entertainment purpose of communication.
In
this unit we have presented five general reasons or purposes for
communication: to get information, to give information, to solve
problems, to persuade, and to entertain. The general purpose
must be further focused into a specific purpose that states the
precise response to a topic that the communicator is seeking from
the other participants involved in the encounter.
Learning
is the shared goal for both information-getting and -giving.
The information-getter needs to be open-minded and needs to ask
effective questions, to listen effectively, and to separate fact
from inference. The information-giver must desire to be understood
and must be able to output both verbal and nonverbal information
effectively. The goal of problem-solving is to find viable solutions
to blocked goals. The problem-solver needs to have a scientific
attitude and to be able to evaluates both evidence and reasoning.
The goal of persuasion is to effect voluntary changes in attitudes
and/or behavior. This requires a persuadee-centered attitude
and the ability to create and resolve cognitive dissonance in
the persuadees. Entertainment
provides a diversion for people. The entertainer should possess
a desire to please and the ability to manage the expectations
of the listener or audience.
Introduction
and conclusion have common features regardless of general purpose.
Gaining interest, establishing credibility, and orienting others
to the topic takes place in the introduction. Refocusing, summarizing,
and conveying a sense of finality takes place in the conclusion.
In
addition, learning purposes usually suggest additional sources
of information on the topic in the conclusion, and information-getting
encounters ask for corrections and additions in the conclusion.
Information-giving introductions develop a need to know about
the topic and present an initial summary of the points to be covered.
A strong challenge or appeal is a requirement in the conclusion
of a persuasive presentation.
The
substantive format dictated by a given general purpose may vary
considerably. Bodies for information-getting may consist of question-asking
or definition, analysis, and investigation. The body for an information-giving
purpose requires the detailed development of points outlined in
the initial summary. A problem solving purpose demands definition,
analysis, criteria establishment, alternative solutions, the best
solution, and implementation. The body for a persuasive purpose
follows five of the six steps of the problem-solving format:
all of the alternative solutions are not considered in the persuasive
format. The body for an entertainment purpose resembles the body
of an information-giving format.
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